Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• • PGS-P4, with an optimal phosphorus content, exhibited the most intense BSP protein expression in rat BMSCs after one week of culture, outperforming PLGA, PGS, PGS-P2, and PGS-P6, indicating a non-monotonic dose-response relationship that is critical for designing osteoinductive scaffolds. • • The phosphorylation method allows tunable phosphorus content by varying the molar ratio of POCl3 to PGS, enabling precise control over the degree of modification, which is essential for optimizing osteogenic activity while maintaining mechanical integrity. • • All phosphorylated polyesters (PGS-P2, PGS-P4, PGS-P6) enhanced osteogenic differentiation compared to non-phosphorylated PGS, but the enhancement peaked at PGS-P4, suggesting an optimal phosphate release rate that balances osteoinduction and cellular toxicity. • • The PGS-P4 porous 3D scaffolds demonstrated favorable properties for bone regeneration, combining biocompatibility, biodegradability, and osteoinductivity, offering a promising alternative to inorganic phosphorylated materials that suffer from brittleness and slow degradation.
Abstract
Bone defects remain a prevalent clinical challenge, and regenerative medicine based on bone tissue engineering offers promising solutions. Traditional osteogenic materials rely on bioactive macromolecules like growth factors, which suffer from poor stability and stringent storage requirements. From a structural perspective, bone tissue resides in a phosphorylated microenvironment, with 65–70% of inorganic components composed of hydroxyapatite. Inorganic phosphorylated materials induce osteogenic differentiation but exhibit high stiffness, brittleness, slow degradation, and limited mechanical tunability. Synthetic phosphorylated polymers with excellent mechanical properties and biocompatibility have been developed to address these issues. In this work, we developed a series of phosphorylated polymers derived from poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS), a biocompatible and biodegradable material. Leveraging the hydroxyl-rich backbone of PGS, we demonstrated an efficient method for controllable phosphorylation of PGS side chains, enabling synthesis of PGS-based phosphorylated (PGS-P) polymers with tunable phosphorus contents. The optimized phosphorylated polyester, PGS-P4, exhibited strong ability to promote osteogenic differentiation of rat BMSCs, and its porous three-dimensional scaffolds showed favorable properties for bone regeneration. BMSCs cultured for one week and observed by fluorescence microscopy showed enhanced BSP protein expression on PGS-P2, PGS-P4, and PGS-P6 groups compared with PLGA and PGS, with PGS-P4 displaying the most intense signal. In summary, we present a simple and controllable method for preparation of functionalized polyesters and their porous scaffolds with tunable phosphorus content, validating its effectiveness in promoting osteogenic differentiation of rat BMSCs. All phosphorylated polyesters exhibit enhanced differentiation-promoting effects compared to non-phosphorylated PGS; however, the degree of enhancement does not increase monotonically with phosphorus content. PGS-P4, containing an optimal phosphorus level, shows the most pronounced biological functions.
1. Introduction
Bone defects remain a prevalent and challenging clinical problem, with current regenerative strategies relying heavily on bioactive macromolecules such as growth factors and extracellular matrix proteins. However, these macromolecules exhibit poor stability, susceptibility to inactivation, and stringent storage requirements, limiting their widespread clinical application. Inorganic phosphorylated materials, while chemically similar to natural bone, suffer from high stiffness, brittleness, slow degradation, and limited mechanical tunability, hindering their use in load-bearing applications. This has created a pressing need for synthetic phosphorylated polymers that combine osteoinductive properties with robust mechanical performance and controlled degradation.
This work addresses this bottleneck by introducing a series of phosphorylated polymers derived from poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS), a proven biocompatible and biodegradable elastomer. By leveraging the hydroxyl-rich backbone of PGS, we developed a simple and controllable method for side-chain phosphorylation using phosphorus oxychloride, enabling precise tuning of phosphorus content. The optimized polymer, PGS-P4, demonstrated superior osteogenic differentiation of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) compared to non-phosphorylated PGS and other phosphorylated variants, as evidenced by enhanced bone sialoprotein (BSP) expression. This approach not only provides a versatile platform for bone tissue engineering but also offers a systematic understanding of how phosphorus content regulates cellular behavior, potentially overcoming the limitations of existing osteogenic materials.
Loading authentic research manuscript (Pages 1–5)...
JIA Yujie, WANG Zi, HUANG Peng, LI Shuai, MA Shengrong, SHEN Yubin, YANG Furu, FAN Xianqun, BI Xiaoping, YOU Zhengwei (2026). Osteogenic Differentiation of Rat Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Regulated by Varying the Phosphorylation of Polymers. SCIENCE CHINA Materials. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40843-025-4085-9
Research & Educational Purpose Only: The translations, structured abstracts, analytical annotations, and data reports provided by SinoGreenTechare intended exclusively for academic research, internal corporate R&D, and educational benchmarking. They do not constitute formal engineering, chemical safety, legal, or professional advice.
Copyright & Intellectual Property Notice: Original copyright of the underlying source articles and experimental data remains with the respective authors, institutions, and original publishing journals. SinoGreenTech claims intellectual property only over its proprietary translations, analytical syntheses, and AEO structured enhancements in accordance with international fair use and academic citation principles.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the optimal phosphorus content for osteogenic differentiation, and how was it determined?
The optimal phosphorus content corresponds to PGS-P4, which exhibited the most intense BSP protein expression in rat BMSCs after one week of culture. This was determined by comparing PGS-P2, PGS-P4, and PGS-P6, where PGS-P4 showed the highest fluorescence intensity and proportion of positive cells, indicating a non-monotonic relationship between phosphorus content and osteogenic efficacy.
How does the phosphorylation of PGS affect its mechanical properties and degradation rate?
The study does not provide quantitative mechanical or degradation data, but it is implied that phosphorylation introduces β-glycerol phosphate moieties via biodegradable ester bonds, which release phosphate upon degradation. This release is expected to influence the degradation rate and mechanical properties over time, though specific values are not reported. Further characterization would be necessary to quantify these effects.
What are the scalability and cost implications of the phosphorylation method for industrial production?
The method uses POCl3, a common and relatively inexpensive reagent, and the reaction is performed on PGS, which is already produced at scale. The process is described as simple and controllable, suggesting potential for scale-up. However, cost analysis and large-scale synthesis validation are not provided, so industrial feasibility remains to be demonstrated.
How does PGS-P4 compare to existing commercial osteogenic materials in terms of performance and safety?
PGS-P4 outperformed PLGA and non-phosphorylated PGS in promoting BSP expression, indicating superior osteoinductive potential. However, long-term in vivo safety and efficacy data are not presented. The use of biodegradable and biocompatible PGS suggests a favorable safety profile, but comparative studies with commercial products are needed.
What are the limitations of this study, and what future work is needed?
The study focuses on in vitro osteogenic differentiation and does not include in vivo bone regeneration data. Additionally, the exact phosphorus content of PGS-P4 is not quantified, and the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully explored. Future work should include in vivo studies, quantitative phosphorus analysis, and mechanistic investigations to fully validate the clinical potential.
Related Chinese Research & Cross-Citations
Ammonium Vanadate Cathodes in Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries: Design Strategies and Research Progress
Aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIBs) offer a compelling combination of high safety, environmental compatibility, and abundant zinc resources, positioning them as viable candidates for grid-scale energy storage. Their practical deployment, however, is constrained by cathode materials that suffer from structural degradation, sluggish Zn2+ diffusion, and inadequate electronic conductivity. Ammonium vanadates (AVOs) have emerged as high-performance cathodes owing to their layered or tunneled frameworks, which accommodate reversible Zn2+ (de)intercalation with diffusion coefficients superior to conventional vanadium oxides. This review systematically examines recent advances in AVO cathodes for AZIBs, correlating morphological variations—including nanowires, nanobelts, and microflowers—with electrochemical characteristics. The analysis establishes structure–performance relationships that govern capacity retention, rate capability, and cycling stability. Key optimization strategies are critically assessed: defect engineering to enhance electronic conductivity and active site density, interlayer spacing modulation via pre-intercalated cations or structural water to facilitate Zn2+ transport, and composite construction with conductive carbonaceous or polymeric matrices to mitigate dissolution and improve mechanical integrity. Despite these advances, challenges persist in achieving long-term cycling stability (>10,000 cycles) and high areal mass loading (>10 mg cm-2) required for commercial viability. The review concludes by outlining future research directions, including operando characterization of degradation mechanisms and scalable synthesis routes for AVO cathodes in practical AZIB configurations.
Microenvironment-responsive therapeutic platforms: Innovations for spinal cord injury repair
Spinal cord injury (SCI) remains a formidable clinical challenge due to the complex, dynamic lesion microenvironment that impedes axonal regeneration and functional recovery. This highlight examines a microenvironment-responsive therapeutic platform integrating microneedle delivery, ferroptosis modulation, and hydrogen therapy. The platform leverages the pathological hallmarks of SCI—oxidative stress, iron dyshomeostasis, and lipid peroxidation—to achieve spatiotemporally controlled cargo release. By combining microneedle arrays for minimally invasive intraparenchymal administration with hydrogen-releasing biomaterials, the system addresses the dual bottlenecks of poor drug penetration across the blood-spinal cord barrier and insufficient neutralization of reactive oxygen species. Ferroptosis inhibition is achieved through iron chelation and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) stabilization, while hydrogen gas scavenges hydroxyl radicals and peroxynitrite. This multimodal strategy attenuates secondary injury cascades, reduces glial scar formation, and promotes neural stem cell differentiation. The work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82574518) and the Talent Cultivation Project of Paring Academicians with Young Talents in higher education institutions in Zhejiang. The authors declare no conflict of interest. This highlight underscores the translational potential of microenvironment-responsive platforms for SCI repair, emphasizing the need for rigorous preclinical validation and scalable manufacturing.
Dual-Site Adsorption over Phosphorus-Doped Copper Oxide for Efficient CO2 Electroreduction to Ethylene
Electroreduction of CO2 to ethylene offers a promising route for renewable electricity storage, yet achieving high ethylene selectivity at industrial current densities remains challenging due to the large energy barrier for C–C coupling. Here, we report a “MOF-assisted in situ doping” strategy to introduce the oxophilic nonmetal phosphorus (P) into the copper oxide (CuO) lattice, constructing a localized Cu–P dual-site adsorption configuration for the key *OCCHO intermediate. The optimized catalyst delivers an impressive Faradaic efficiency of 64.6% for ethylene with a partial current density of 646 mA cm-2. Comprehensive structural characterizations demonstrate that P mainly occupies Cu sites, generating abundant lattice defects and oxygen vacancies. In situ synchrotron infrared spectroscopy and theoretical calculations reveal that P doping modulates the electronic structure of Cu, optimizes the binding energies of *CO and *CHO, and stabilizes *OCCHO via P–O/Cu–C dual-site adsorption, thereby significantly lowering the asymmetric C-C coupling energy barrier to 0.74 eV. This work highlights a dual-site microenvironment regulation strategy for CO2-to-ethylene electroreduction.
Hydrophilic Single-Atom Interface Unlocks Low-Potential CO Removal on Pt in PEMFCs
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) fed with reformate hydrogen suffer severe anode poisoning by trace CO, necessitating high CO electrooxidation potentials that degrade performance and durability. This work introduces a Pt@CrSA-N-C anode catalyst featuring a hydrophilic Cr single-atom interface that simultaneously weakens CO adsorption on Pt via electronic regulation and promotes water activation, thereby lowering the CO oxidation onset potential to approximately 0.13 V vs. RHE. The onset potential was determined by two independent methods: the first potential at which the background-corrected current exceeds 0 mA cm-2 during CO oxidation reaction tests in a three-electrode system, and the potential at which the forward scan current exceeds the N2 background current in CO-stripping voltammetry. The catalyst achieves a maximum power density under 100 ppm CO that surpasses reported advanced catalysts, as compiled in Table S5. Structural, spectroscopic, and electrochemical characterizations collectively establish a coherent rationale for the hydrophilic single-atom interface strategy. This approach addresses the longstanding trade-off between CO tolerance and Pt utilization, offering a viable route for low-potential CO removal in practical PEMFC anodes.
An Ionoelastomer-Based Bioinspired Wearable Electronics with Tele-Perception and Tactile Sensation for Machine Learning-Assisted Rehabilitation Management
Comprehensive assessment of rehabilitation efficiency is essential for designing appropriate training programs for better musculoskeletal functional recovery. Existing contact-receptor-dependent rehabilitation assessment systems mostly focus on assessing the restoration of muscle function by evaluating grip strength or joint flexion angle; however, parameters reflecting neuromuscular synergistic function are always overlooked. Herein, we develop an ionoelastomer-based soft artificial electroreceptor (SAER) that integrates tele-perception and tactile sensation to track the rehabilitation process, collecting signals related to approaching speed and grip strength sequentially. The SAER uses polyurethane ionoelastomer incorporated with quasi-solid conductive salt as the electric field receptor, and is integrated on a rehabilitation-training ball after assembly to establish an untethered detection device; this enables the remote capture of hand approaching parameter within a 9 cm range, followed by the quantification of grip strength when contacting and grasping. Furthermore, a data-driven assessment system is established by integrating machine learning, which accurately classifies rehabilitation efficiency into six levels; it supports for rehabilitation evaluation and training programs adjustment. Overall, the SAER-based rehabilitation management system establishes a paradigm that synergistically evaluating parameters corresponding to neuromuscular functional restoration and holds strong potential for home-based active rehabilitation for minimizing dependence on frequent clinical supervision.
Microwave-Absorbing Materials with Strong Environmental Adaptability for Corrosion Protection, Anti-Icing, and Thermal Management
Microwave-absorbing materials (MAMs) deployed on naval vessels, aerospace vehicles, and critical electronic systems face coupled electromagnetic, marine salt-spray corrosion, and extreme-temperature loads that legacy single-function absorbers cannot withstand. This review consolidates progress on three environmentally adaptive MAM classes: corrosion-protective, anti-icing, and thermal-management absorbers. The electromagnetic loss and impedance-matching fundamentals are first established, then the synergistic mechanisms, design strategies, and characterization protocols for each class are examined against representative material systems and their measured performance. The analysis identifies a shared design logic—multiscale hierarchical architecture, interfacial polarization engineering, and multifunctional phase integration—while distinguishing the divergent protection mechanisms: barrier and passivation effects for corrosion, surface-energy and latent-heat regulation for anti-icing, and phonon–electron transport decoupling for thermal management. Persistent bottlenecks include the trade-off between impedance matching and protective-layer density, the absence of standardized coupled-field test protocols, and the scarcity of long-term salt-spray and thermal-cycling durability data. Future directions are delineated: intelligent self-adaptive absorbers, multiphysics-coupled simulation frameworks, and environmentally benign multifunctional integration. The review provides a theoretical and technical basis for the design, construction, and engineering scale-up of next-generation high-performance absorbers for aerospace, electronic, and marine equipment.