Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• • The LAD method enables fabrication of square meter-sized perovskite modules with high efficiency and stability, but the geometric design of the drying apparatus is decisive for achieving uniform drying and film quality. • • Perovskite solar modules currently exhibit operational lifetimes of approximately 9 years, which is significantly lower than the ~15-year lifespan of silicon modules and the >20-year T90 lifespan expected for PV modules, highlighting a critical stability gap. • • Alternative scalable drying methods, such as multi-flow air knife (yielding large-area high-efficiency cells) and vacuum flash-assisted solution processing (demonstrated on high-efficiency large-area cells), offer competing approaches but each has trade-offs in complexity and scalability. • • The crystallization process in perovskite films is highly sensitive to drying conditions; understanding the formation of vertical orientation in 2D perovskites and the cracking behavior in drying films is essential for optimizing film morphology and device performance.
Abstract
The commercialization of perovskite solar modules (PSMs) is hindered by the challenge of achieving uniform, high-quality perovskite films over large areas with scalable manufacturing methods. While the laminar air drying (LAD) method has demonstrated high manufacturing efficiency and module performance, the geometric design of the drying apparatus is critical for uniform and efficient drying. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art in perovskite crystallization and film formation, emphasizing the role of drying kinetics in determining film quality. We analyze the LAD method reported by Yan et al., which achieved square meter-sized modules with excellent efficiency and stability, and contrast it with alternative scalable deposition techniques such as air knife and vacuum flash-assisted methods. The operational lifetimes of perovskite modules (~9 years) remain below those of silicon modules (~15 years) and PV modules (>20 years), underscoring the need for improved stability. We discuss the fundamental aspects of crystallization in nanocrystals, single crystals, and thin films, and the influence of vertical orientation in 2D perovskites. The review highlights the importance of process control in scalable deposition, particularly the role of airflow uniformity in preventing cracking and defects. Our analysis provides a framework for optimizing LAD parameters to achieve high-quality films, addressing the critical bottleneck of scalability and stability for perovskite photovoltaics.
1. Introduction
The industrialization of perovskite photovoltaics is at a critical juncture. While lab-scale cells have achieved remarkable efficiencies, the transition to large-area modules has been hampered by the difficulty of depositing uniform, defect-free perovskite films over square-meter scales. Conventional spin-coating is inherently limited to small areas, and scalable methods such as slot-die coating, air knife drying, and vacuum flash have been explored, yet each faces challenges in controlling crystallization dynamics and achieving uniform film thickness across large substrates. The resulting films often suffer from pinholes, cracks, and thickness variations, which degrade device performance and long-term stability. The operational lifetime of perovskite modules (~9 years) remains far below that of established silicon technology (~15 years) and the expected >20-year lifespan of PV modules, underscoring the urgent need for manufacturing processes that can deliver both high efficiency and extended durability.
The laminar air drying (LAD) method, as reported by Yan et al., represents a significant advancement in scalable perovskite manufacturing. By directing a controlled laminar airflow over the wet film, LAD facilitates rapid and uniform solvent evaporation, promoting homogeneous nucleation and crystal growth. This approach has successfully produced square meter-sized modules with excellent efficiency and stability, marking a milestone toward commercialization. However, the success of LAD hinges on the precise design of the drying geometry—airflow velocity, direction, and uniformity must be optimized to avoid localized drying rates that lead to film defects. This review critically examines the LAD method in the context of other scalable deposition techniques, analyzing the underlying crystallization physics and the impact of drying conditions on film quality. We aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the process-structure-performance relationships that govern scalable perovskite manufacturing, offering insights for further optimization and industrial adoption.
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GAO Q, QI J, CHEN K, et al. (2026). Laminar Air Drying for Scalable Perovskite Solar Module Manufacturing: A Critical Analysis of Process-Structure-Performance Relationships. SCIENCE CHINA Materials. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40843-025-3557-3
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Frequently Asked Questions
What are the specific failure mechanisms in perovskite modules that limit operational lifetime to ~9 years, and how does the LAD method address these?
The ~9-year operational lifetime is primarily limited by ion migration, moisture ingress, and thermal cycling-induced mechanical stress, which cause non-radiative recombination and material degradation. The LAD method improves film uniformity and crystallinity, reducing defect densities that act as initiation sites for degradation. However, LAD alone does not solve intrinsic stability issues; encapsulation and compositional engineering are still required to reach silicon-level lifetimes.
How does the geometric design of the LAD apparatus influence drying uniformity and final film quality, and what are the optimal parameters?
The geometric design determines airflow velocity distribution and shear stress on the film surface. Non-uniform airflow leads to differential solvent evaporation rates, causing thickness variations and cracking. Optimal designs use a slot die or array of nozzles to create a uniform laminar flow across the entire substrate, with controlled velocity (typically 1-5 m/s) and temperature (25-60°C) to achieve a drying time of seconds to minutes. The exact parameters depend on the solvent system and desired film thickness.
What are the cost implications of LAD compared to other scalable methods like air knife or vacuum flash, and can it achieve cost parity with silicon?
LAD is a low-cost, ambient-pressure process that does not require vacuum equipment, reducing capital expenditure. It is compatible with roll-to-roll manufacturing, potentially lowering production costs. However, the cost of perovskite materials and encapsulation remains significant. Achieving cost parity with silicon requires further improvements in module efficiency (>25%) and lifetime (>20 years), which are not yet demonstrated. LAD's high throughput and low energy consumption are advantageous, but the overall cost per watt depends on yield and stability.
How does the LAD method affect the crystallization kinetics and morphology of perovskite films, and what is the impact on device efficiency?
LAD promotes rapid, uniform solvent removal, leading to a high supersaturation that favors homogeneous nucleation and the formation of dense, pinhole-free films with large grains. This reduces trap-state density and improves charge carrier mobility, resulting in higher open-circuit voltage and fill factor. Yan et al. reported modules with efficiency exceeding 20% on square meter areas, demonstrating the effectiveness of LAD in achieving high-quality films. However, the exact crystallization pathway depends on the perovskite composition and solvent system.
What are the remaining challenges for scaling LAD to industrial production, and what research directions are needed?
Key challenges include maintaining uniformity over very large areas (e.g., >1 m²), controlling film thickness in the presence of substrate curvature, and integrating LAD with other manufacturing steps (e.g., charge transport layers). Additionally, the long-term stability of LAD-produced modules under real-world conditions needs further validation. Research should focus on in-situ monitoring of drying kinetics, computational fluid dynamics to optimize airflow, and developing robust encapsulation strategies. Collaboration between academia and industry is essential to translate LAD from lab to fab.
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