Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• • Scalable coating methods (e.g., roll-to-roll) induce distinct crystallization kinetics, leading to non-uniform film morphologies that accelerate degradation; precursor ink design (solute purity, aging, solvent) is critical for reproducibility and stability. • • Intrinsic instabilities (ion migration, defect generation) are exacerbated in large-area devices; crystal and compositional engineering, along with passivation strategies, are essential to mitigate these effects. • • Device architecture selection (n-i-p vs. p-i-n) and charge transport layer advancements significantly impact stability under scalable manufacturing; p-i-n configurations show promise for improved operational longevity. • • Encapsulation is the ultimate barrier for commercial modules; scalable techniques and material choices must withstand moisture ingress, thermal cycling (e.g., -40°C to 85°C), and UV-induced degradation to achieve 20-25 year lifetimes.
Abstract
Perovskite photovoltaics offer exceptional promise for next-generation solar energy, yet their commercialization is impeded by a critical scalability-stability gap: scalable solution-processed coating methods introduce distinct fluid dynamics and crystallization kinetics, yielding varied film morphologies and unstable degradation behaviors. This review addresses this challenge by re-examining stability exclusively through scalable solution-based fabrication. Degradation mechanisms in scalable processing are dissected, emphasizing precursor ink design—solute purity, ink aging, and solvent engineering—which collectively govern film uniformity and reproducibility. Intrinsic instabilities exacerbated under scalable processing are analyzed via crystal and compositional design, defect generation and passivation, and ion migration in large-area devices. Stable device architectures suitable for scalable manufacturing are explored, comparing n-i-p and p-i-n configurations and advancements in charge transport layers. Encapsulation is critically evaluated as the ultimate barrier for commercial modules, covering scalable techniques and material selections, alongside an assessment of operational stability under real-world environments including moisture ingress, thermal cycling, and UV-induced degradation. By integrating these insights, this review establishes a holistic framework for co-designing process scalability and operational longevity, outlining a coherent pathway toward durable and commercially viable perovskite solar modules.
1. Introduction
The global energy transition demands photovoltaic technologies that combine high efficiency with low-cost, high-throughput manufacturing. While silicon solar cells dominate the market, their energy-intensive production and rigid form factor limit further cost reductions and novel applications. Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a disruptive alternative, with certified power conversion efficiencies soaring from 3.8% in 2009 to over 26% in single-junction devices by 2026, rivaling multicrystalline silicon. Their solution-processability at low temperatures enables roll-to-roll and sheet-to-sheet coating on flexible substrates, promising lightweight, flexible, and semi-transparent modules at a fraction of the cost and embodied energy of conventional panels.
However, the path to commercialization is blocked by a critical scalability-stability gap: scalable coating methods introduce distinct fluid dynamics and crystallization kinetics that yield non-uniform films and accelerated degradation under operational stressors. This review dissects the degradation mechanisms unique to scalable processing, highlighting the pivotal role of precursor ink design—solute purity, ink aging, and solvent engineering—in achieving uniform, reproducible films. It further analyzes how intrinsic instabilities, such as ion migration and defect generation, are exacerbated in large-area devices, and explores stable device architectures and encapsulation strategies tailored for scalable manufacturing. By co-designing process scalability and operational longevity, this work provides a coherent roadmap toward durable, commercially viable perovskite solar modules.
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ZHAI Zihao, LI Xiang, CHEN Jieyi, RUAN Bowen, LAI Jiaxing, LIU Qi, ZHOU Huiqiong (2026). Bridging the scalability-stability gap in perovskite photovoltaics via solution-processed coating. SCIENCE CHINA Materials. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40843-026-4091-4
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Frequently Asked Questions
What are the primary degradation mechanisms in perovskite solar cells when transitioning from spin-coating to scalable solution-processed methods like roll-to-roll coating?
Scalable methods introduce non-equilibrium fluid dynamics and rapid solvent evaporation, leading to non-uniform crystallization and film morphology. This exacerbates intrinsic instabilities such as ion migration and defect formation, which are more pronounced in large-area devices. Precursor ink design—including solute purity, ink aging, and solvent selection—is critical to mitigate these issues and ensure reproducible, stable films.
How does the choice of device architecture (n-i-p vs. p-i-n) impact the operational stability of perovskite modules manufactured via scalable coating?
The review compares n-i-p and p-i-n configurations, noting that p-i-n architectures often exhibit better stability due to reduced ion migration and more favorable charge transport layer interfaces. Advancements in charge transport layers, such as using self-assembled monolayers or inorganic oxides, further enhance stability. The choice must align with scalable deposition techniques to minimize interfacial defects and degradation under thermal and moisture stress.
What encapsulation strategies are recommended for commercial perovskite modules to achieve 20-25 year lifetimes under real-world conditions?
Encapsulation is the ultimate barrier against moisture ingress, thermal cycling, and UV-induced degradation. Scalable techniques include lamination with barrier films, edge sealing with glass or polymer adhesives, and the use of hydrophobic or cross-linked polymer coatings. Material selections must provide low water vapor transmission rates (WVTR) and withstand temperature cycling from -40°C to 85°C. The review emphasizes co-designing encapsulation with device architecture to minimize stress and ensure long-term operational stability.
What are the key parameters in precursor ink design that govern film uniformity and reproducibility in scalable coating?
Solute purity is paramount; impurities can act as nucleation sites, leading to non-uniform crystallization. Ink aging affects precursor speciation and solution stability, altering film morphology. Solvent engineering, including the use of co-solvents or additives, controls evaporation rates and intermediate phases, enabling uniform film formation. These parameters collectively determine the final film's defect density and stability, making them critical for scalable manufacturing.
How do crystal and compositional design mitigate the exacerbated instabilities observed in large-area perovskite devices?
Crystal engineering, such as controlling grain size and orientation, reduces grain boundaries that serve as ion migration pathways. Compositional tuning, including mixed cations and halides, enhances intrinsic stability by reducing lattice strain and suppressing phase segregation. Defect passivation using additives or post-treatment further minimizes non-radiative recombination and ion migration. These strategies are essential to maintain performance and stability when scaling up from lab-scale to module-level devices.
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