Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• • 3D printing enables anatomically accurate stroke patient-specific carotid artery-on-chips for personalized thrombosis investigation, achieving patient-specific geometry with potential for high-fidelity hemodynamic modeling (Adv Mater, 2026, 38: e08890). • • Desktop 3D printers can fabricate cerebral aneurysm simulators (Sci Rep, 2017, 7: 44301), demonstrating cost-effective production of complex vascular phantoms for surgical planning and device testing. • • Microfluidic bioprinting of tough hydrogel-based vascular conduits (Sci Adv, 2022, 8: eabq6900) yields functional blood vessels with mechanical robustness suitable for in vivo implantation, addressing the need for small-diameter grafts. • • Freeform inkjet printing of cellular structures with bifurcations (Biotech Bioeng, 2015, 112: 1047–1055) enables fabrication of multi-furcated vessels, critical for replicating hierarchical vascular networks in tissue engineering.
Abstract
The human vascular system, characterized by multi-scale topological complexity, serves as the fundamental infrastructure for nutrient transport, hemodynamic regulation, and immune surveillance. Replicating this system is critical for injury repair, disease modeling, and organ-on-a-chip development, yet a key gap persists between structural mimicry and full functional reproduction. This review evaluates how emerging 3D printing strategies are advancing beyond geometric imitation toward integrated physiological functions, thereby helping to bridge this divide. Over the past decade, 3D printing has advanced significantly in functional vascular reconstruction via precise molding and cell-material integration. This review summarizes the latest progress, including material design, molding methods, and structural optimization, focusing on 3D printing breakthroughs in three core scenarios: high-fidelity in vitro vascular models, in vivo tissue functional replacement, and vascularized organ-on-a-chip systems. Furthermore, this review delves into the existing challenges and future prospects of these application directions. Keywords: vascular reconstruction, 3D printing, bionic vessels, hydrogel.
1. Introduction
Vascular reconstruction remains a formidable challenge in regenerative medicine. Conventional synthetic grafts (e.g., ePTFE, Dacron) exhibit acceptable patency for large-diameter vessels but fail catastrophically in small-diameter (<6 mm) applications due to thrombosis and intimal hyperplasia. Decellularized matrices and tissue-engineered vessels offer biological cues but suffer from batch variability, limited mechanical strength, and high production costs. The clinical need for functional, patient-specific vascular substitutes is unmet, particularly for complex pathologies such as stroke and aneurysms.
3D printing has emerged as a transformative fabrication platform, enabling precise control over geometry, material composition, and cellular distribution. Unlike traditional molding or electrospinning, additive manufacturing allows for the recreation of patient-specific anatomical features and hierarchical structures, from capillaries to large arteries. This review synthesizes recent advances in materials (e.g., hydrogels, PVA), printing techniques (e.g., DLP, microfluidic bioprinting), and structural optimization, demonstrating how 3D printing is bridging the gap between structural mimicry and functional vascular reconstruction.
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TAN Ye, LI Yuxin, CHAI Muyuan, SHI Xuetao (2026). Advancing Functional Vascular Reconstruction through 3D Printing Strategies. SCIENCE CHINA Materials. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40843-026-4251-2
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Frequently Asked Questions
What are the primary failure mechanisms of 3D-printed small-diameter vascular grafts under physiological flow conditions, and how do current materials address them?
Primary failure mechanisms include thrombosis, intimal hyperplasia, and mechanical mismatch. Current materials such as tough hydrogels (e.g., from microfluidic bioprinting, Sci Adv 2022) are designed to match native compliance and resist kinking. Surface modifications with fucoidan and topography (Bioact Mater 2023) improve in situ endothelialization, reducing thrombogenicity. However, long-term patency data under pulsatile flow remain limited.
How does the resolution of current 3D printing techniques compare to the scale of capillaries, and what strategies are used to fabricate microvascular networks?
Standard extrusion printing achieves ~100 μm resolution, insufficient for capillaries (~5-10 μm). To create microchannels, researchers use sacrificial materials (e.g., thermoresponsive hydrogels, Adv Funct Mater 2021) or freeform inkjet printing (Biotech Bioeng 2015) to generate bifurcated networks. Two-photon polymerization can reach sub-micron resolution but is limited in throughput.
What are the scalability bottlenecks for translating 3D-printed vascular constructs from bench to clinical use?
Scalability challenges include maintaining cell viability during printing of large constructs, achieving uniform endothelialization, and ensuring sterility. Production speed is limited by printing time and post-processing steps. Regulatory approval requires standardized quality control, which is difficult with patient-specific designs. Cost remains high due to specialized bioinks and equipment.
How do 3D-printed vascular models compare to animal models in terms of predictive accuracy for drug testing and disease modeling?
3D-printed models, such as carotid artery-on-chips (Adv Mater 2026), offer patient-specific geometry and controlled hemodynamics, enabling personalized thrombosis studies. They reduce reliance on animal models, which often fail to predict human responses. However, they lack systemic interactions (e.g., immune response) and require validation against clinical outcomes.
What are the key material properties required for 3D-printed vascular grafts to ensure long-term patency, and how are they measured?
Key properties include burst pressure (>1700 mmHg for arterial grafts), suture retention strength (>2 N), compliance matching (1-2 %/100 mmHg), and degradation rate matching tissue ingrowth. These are measured using mechanical testing (e.g., tensile, burst) and in vivo implantation studies. For example, PVA grafts (Adv Funct Mater 2008) show high strength but require crosslinking to control degradation.
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