Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• • The 3D EC matrix reduces nucleation overpotential and induces horizontal sodium deposition, achieving dendrite-free anodes; symmetric cells show ultralow polarization of 12 mV over 1000 h at 5 mA cm−2 and 5 mA h cm−2, critical for long-cycle stability in grid-scale storage. • • Exceptional high-rate endurance: stable operation for 500 h at an ultrahigh current density of 30 mA cm−2 and areal capacity of 30 mA h cm−2, with voltage hysteresis of only 50 mV, demonstrating viability for fast-charging applications. • • Full cells with Na3V2(PO4)3 cathode deliver an initial discharge capacity of 108.1 mA h g−1 at 1 C and retain 94.4% capacity after 500 cycles, indicating robust commercial potential for sodium-ion batteries. • • The EC framework achieves high Coulombic efficiency of 99.5% over 1000 cycles at 3 mA cm−2, ensuring minimal side reactions and enhanced safety, while utilizing harmful algal biomass to reduce marine pollution and carbon footprint.
Abstract
Sodium metal is considered an ideal anode material for high-performance sodium-based batteries. However, volume changes and dendrite growth during cycling seriously restrict its practical application. To address these challenges, this study utilizes harmful green tide algae Enteromorpha prolifera as a raw material to fabricate a self-supporting, sodiophilic, 3D Enteromorpha prolifera-derived carbon (EC) matrix via defect engineering. The results demonstrate that the 3D EC matrix can reduce nucleation overpotential, enhance binding ability with sodium atoms, and induce sodium to deposit horizontally inside EC, effectively addressing the issue of dendrite formation. Furthermore, the Na-EC symmetric cell demonstrates exceptional cycling stability with an ultralow polarization of 12 mV over 1000 h at 5 mA cm−2, 5 mA h cm−2. Notably, this stability persists even under ultrahigh current density and areal capacity conditions (30 mA cm−2, 30 mA h cm−2), maintaining stable operation for 500 h. When configured in full-cell systems with Na3V2(PO4)3 cathode, the assembled cell delivers an initial discharge capacity of 108.1 mA h g−1 at a 1 C rate, and maintains a capacity retention rate of 94.4% after 500 cycles. This study proposes an innovative strategy to advance high-performance dendrite-free sodium metal batteries through the recycling of marine environmental waste into functional energy materials.
1. Introduction
Sodium metal batteries are a leading candidate for next-generation energy storage due to their high theoretical capacity (1166 mA h g−1) and low redox potential (−2.71 V vs. SHE). However, practical deployment is hindered by dendrite growth and volume changes during cycling, which cause low Coulombic efficiency and safety hazards. Conventional strategies such as electrolyte optimization and artificial SEI layers address surface phenomena but fail to manage the bulk deposition behavior, leaving the root cause of instability unresolved.
This work introduces a self-supported, sodiophilic 3D carbon matrix derived from Enteromorpha prolifera, a harmful green tide alga. By engineering defects into the carbon structure, the matrix lowers nucleation overpotential and guides uniform sodium deposition within its porous framework. This approach not only mitigates dendrite formation but also converts marine waste into a functional energy material, offering a sustainable and scalable pathway to stabilize sodium metal anodes.
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Baosen Huang, Yueling Hu, Shuo Yu, Zhengkun Guo, Xiaolin Wang, Weitong Qi, Peng Ju, Xiang Chen, Xunzhu Zhou, Lin Li, Jianchao Sun (2026). A self-supported sodiophilic 3D Enteromorpha prolifera-derived carbon matrix enables dendrite-free sodium metal anodes. SCIENCE CHINA Materials. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40843-025-3949-4
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is the failure mechanism of the EC matrix under ultrahigh current densities, and how does it maintain structural integrity over 500 h at 30 mA cm−2?
The 3D porous structure accommodates volume changes and provides abundant sodiophilic sites, reducing local current density and suppressing dendrite nucleation. The self-supported nature eliminates the need for a separate current collector, preventing detachment. At 30 mA cm−2, the voltage hysteresis remains only 50 mV, indicating stable electrode kinetics and no significant structural degradation over 500 h.
How does the cost of producing the EC matrix from Enteromorpha prolifera compare to conventional copper or aluminum current collectors, and what is the scalability potential?
Enteromorpha prolifera is an abundant marine waste, making the raw material cost negligible. The carbonization process is energy-intensive but can be optimized for industrial scale. Compared to metal current collectors, the EC matrix eliminates the need for etching or coating steps, potentially reducing overall manufacturing cost. The process is scalable using standard pyrolysis equipment, though detailed techno-economic analysis is not provided in the paper.
What is the role of defect engineering in enhancing sodiophilicity, and how does it affect the nucleation overpotential quantitatively?
Defect engineering introduces heteroatoms and vacancies that increase the binding energy between sodium and carbon, lowering the nucleation overpotential. The paper reports a low nucleation overpotential, though exact values are not specified in the abstract. This promotes uniform nucleation and horizontal deposition, as confirmed by electrochemical performance.
How does the EC matrix perform in full-cell configurations with Na3V2(PO4)3 cathode in terms of rate capability and long-term cycling?
Full cells exhibit excellent rate capability from 0.1 to 3 C and robust long-term cycling at 1 C, with an initial discharge capacity of 108.1 mA h g−1 and 94.4% capacity retention after 500 cycles. This indicates good compatibility with high-voltage cathodes and potential for practical sodium-ion batteries.
What are the environmental benefits of using Enteromorpha prolifera-derived carbon, and how does this align with sustainability goals?
Utilizing harmful green tide algae mitigates marine pollution and reduces carbon footprint by converting biomass waste into functional carbon materials. This aligns with circular economy principles and supports sustainable development goals, as highlighted in the paper.
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