Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• • The PTD/PCC sIPN achieves a maximum shear strength of 150.5 kPa under physiological conditions, outperforming conventional biological glues and providing robust tissue adhesion critical for withstanding intravascular pressure. • • The device exhibits autonomous self-deployment at 37 °C, enabling on-demand shape recovery triggered by body temperature, which simplifies deployment procedures and reduces the risk of migration. • • In vitro hemocompatibility is exceptional with hemolysis below 3%, and cell migration is enhanced by up to 38.9%, indicating excellent biocompatibility for vascular applications. • • In vivo, the material promotes angiogenesis with CD31 expression increased by 162.18% and αSMA by 154.93% compared to control, demonstrating its potential to accelerate vascular healing.
Abstract
Interventional therapy has emerged as a transformative alternative to open surgery owing to its minimal invasiveness and fast recovery. However, it still presents risks of iatrogenic injury from vascular access, necessitating prompt and reliable vascular closure. Although various closure systems have been developed, they often suffer from complicated deployment procedures, potential for loosening, and risk of device migration. Herein, we develop a smart self-deployable vascular closure device enabled by a semi-interpenetrating network (sIPN) that synergistically integrates a programmable shape memory effect and robust tissue adhesion. The sIPN was designed by interpenetrating flexible, dopamine-functionalized poly(tetrahydrofuran) (PTD) chains into a photo-crosslinkable poly(ε-caprolactone)-based copolymer (PCC) network. The vascular closure model was fabricated via a UV-assisted fused deposition modeling printing strategy, significantly reducing mechanical anisotropy while facilitating structural customization. The resulting device exhibits autonomous self-deployment at 37 °C, along with reliable tissue adhesion under physiological conditions (maximum shear strength of 150.5 kPa). In vitro, the material demonstrates exceptional hemocompatibility (below 3%) and excellently enhanced cell migration (up to 38.9%). In vivo, immunofluorescence analysis reveals a promotion for CD31 (162.18%) and αSMA (154.93%) compared to the control group. These results highlight the PTD/PCC sIPN as a bioadaptive, multifunctional material platform for intelligent vascular closure, offering great promise for clinical translation in interventional therapies.
1. Introduction
Conventional vascular closure methods, such as suturing, often result in incomplete sealing and a high risk of vascular stenosis, particularly under the constrained conditions of interventional procedures. Commercial closure systems based on physical interlocking, such as ProGlide, VASCADE, and MANTA, rely on deploying polymer plugs to form a sandwich-like structure, yet they suffer from complex deployment procedures, potential loosening or migration under vascular pulsation and blood flow, which can cause tissue tearing and secondary damage. Injectable biological glues, including collagen- or polyethylene glycol-based formulations, offer convenient delivery but lack sufficient adhesive and mechanical strength to withstand intravascular pressure. Cyanoacrylate-based glues provide strong immediate adhesion but exhibit poor biocompatibility and risk premature detachment under dynamic blood flow. These limitations underscore the need for a closure strategy that combines robust adhesion, mechanical durability, and biocompatibility.
This work addresses these bottlenecks by developing a semi-interpenetrating network (sIPN) that integrates a programmable shape memory effect with robust tissue adhesion. The sIPN is composed of dopamine-functionalized poly(tetrahydrofuran) (PTD) chains interpenetrated into a photo-crosslinkable poly(ε-caprolactone)-based copolymer (PCC) network. The incorporation of dopamine groups enhances physical interlocking through tissue adhesion, while the PCC network provides a stable, photo-crosslinked structure enabling shape recovery. Fabricated via UV-assisted fused deposition modeling, the device achieves reduced mechanical anisotropy and structural customization. The resulting device autonomously self-deploys at body temperature and exhibits a maximum shear strength of 150.5 kPa, addressing the limitations of existing closure systems by combining ease of deployment, strong adhesion, and biocompatibility.
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Kun Luo, Qiang Luo, Jing Guo, Zhong-Ming Xia, Mao Chen, Li Tang, Ke-Ke Yang (2026). 4D Printable Semi-Interpenetrating Networks with Robust Tissue Adhesion for Smart Self-Deployable Vascular Closure. SCIENCE CHINA Materials. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40843-025-4086-4
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is the maximum shear strength of the PTD/PCC sIPN under physiological conditions, and how does it compare to existing tissue adhesives?
The PTD/PCC sIPN exhibits a maximum shear strength of 150.5 kPa under physiological conditions. This value is significantly higher than that of conventional biological glues such as collagen- or PEG-based adhesives, which typically offer insufficient adhesive strength for high-pressure vascular applications. The robust adhesion is attributed to the dopamine functional groups, which enhance physical interlocking with tissue.
How does the 4D printing strategy reduce mechanical anisotropy, and what are the implications for device performance?
The UV-assisted fused deposition modeling (FDM) printing strategy significantly reduces mechanical anisotropy by enabling precise control over the deposition and crosslinking of the sIPN. This results in more uniform mechanical properties across the device, which is critical for reliable deployment and long-term stability under cyclic vascular stresses. The reduced anisotropy also facilitates structural customization for patient-specific anatomies.
What are the in vivo angiogenic effects of the PTD/PCC sIPN, and how do they compare to control groups?
In a rabbit model, immunofluorescence analysis revealed that the PTD/PCC sIPN promotes angiogenesis, with CD31 expression increased by 162.18% and αSMA by 154.93% compared to the control group. These results indicate that the material actively stimulates vascular healing and tissue integration, which is essential for successful closure and long-term patency.
What is the hemocompatibility of the PTD/PCC sIPN, and why is it important for vascular applications?
The material demonstrates exceptional hemocompatibility with hemolysis rates below 3%, which is well within the acceptable threshold for blood-contacting devices. This low hemolysis rate minimizes the risk of thrombus formation and hemolytic reactions, making the material safe for use in vascular closure devices that are in direct contact with blood.
How does the shape memory effect enable self-deployment at body temperature, and what are the advantages over manual deployment?
The PTD/PCC sIPN is designed to exhibit a programmable shape memory effect triggered at 37 °C. This allows the device to autonomously deploy to its pre-programmed shape upon exposure to body temperature, eliminating the need for complex manual deployment procedures. This self-deployment capability reduces the risk of operator error, minimizes procedural time, and ensures consistent and reliable closure.
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