• • Steel ball-enhanced drying increased DRmax by 22.59% (1000 g load) and 41.19% (3000 g load) compared to conventional rotary drying, demonstrating superior performance under higher solids loading.
• • Volumetric evaporation intensity (U) improved by 38.06% (1000 g) and 93.43% (3000 g), indicating that the enhancement effect scales with load, offering potential for industrial throughput increases without additional thermal input.
• • Characteristic drying time (tdry) was shortened by 27.56% (1000 g) and 48.30% (3000 g), directly reducing processing cycle time and improving energy efficiency in batch operations.
• • Maximum effective moisture diffusivity (Deffmax) increased by 27.57% (1000 g) and 48.30% (3000 g), confirming that mechanical disturbance from steel balls disrupts the surface crust and enhances internal moisture transport, a critical factor for achieving uniform drying and preventing case-hardening.