Surface Engineering-Guided Functional Design of Carbon Nanomaterials for Precision Biomedicine

• • Covalent functionalization achieves up to 85% drug loading efficiency and enables controlled release kinetics, reducing burst release to <15% in 24 hours, which is critical for maintaining therapeutic windows and minimizing systemic toxicity. • • Heteroatom doping (e.g., nitrogen, sulfur) increases the specific surface area to 1200–2000 m²/g and enhances electrical conductivity by 3–5 orders of magnitude, improving biosensor sensitivity to detect biomarkers at concentrations as low as 1 pM. • • Non-covalent assembly with PEG or peptides improves physiological dispersibility by >90% and extends blood circulation half-life from minutes to >12 hours, addressing a key bottleneck in in vivo drug delivery. • • Surface-engineered CNMs demonstrate antibacterial efficacy of >99.9% against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria at concentrations below 50 µg/mL, offering a potential alternative to conventional antibiotics in wound healing applications.