Solar Interfacial Evaporation and Desalination Performance of Carbon Spheres-Corn Stalk Double-Layer Evaporator

• • The CC-3 evaporator achieves a solar evaporation rate of 3.55 kg·m−2·h−1 under 1 sun (1 kW·m−2) with an energy efficiency of 97.53%, outperforming many conventional photothermal materials and enabling high-yield freshwater production. • • Under forced convection at 2.5 m·s−1, the evaporation rate escalates to 10.41 kg·m−2·h−1, demonstrating a 193% enhancement over stagnant conditions, which is critical for real-world outdoor operation where wind is prevalent. • • The evaporator exhibits excellent salt tolerance: in 3.5% saline, it maintains an evaporation rate of 3.46 kg·m−2·h−1 over 5 days without performance degradation, and under 2.5 m·s−1 wind, the rate reaches 9.56 kg·m−2·h−1, ensuring long-term stability in desalination applications. • • The material cost is 48.77 ¥·m−2, yielding a cost-effectiveness of 72.79 g·h−1·¥−1, which is economically competitive for scalable deployment in freshwater-scarce regions.