• • Ru-based catalysts exhibit high intrinsic activity for HER and OER, but suffer from strong intermediate adsorption (Ru) and oxidative dissolution (RuO2), limiting durability; strategies like alloying and phase engineering can mitigate these issues.
• • Synthesis methods such as hydrothermal/solvothermal, pyrolysis, and acid etching enable precise control over morphology and composition, with examples showing enhanced catalytic performance.
• • Enhancement strategies including single-atom design and high-entropy alloys can optimize electronic structure and stability, as demonstrated by recent studies (e.g., Ru-Ir mixing in rutile-type (RuIr)O2 for efficient OER).
• • Defect engineering and grain boundary modulation have been shown to improve catalytic activity, with studies reporting increased active site density and improved reaction kinetics.