• • BPS is detected in 78.5% of food samples (up to 67.1 μg·kg−1) and 81.67% of fish samples (up to 65.31 μg·kg−1), indicating widespread dietary exposure that may exceed BPA, necessitating regulatory attention.
• • Indoor dust is a major exposure route, with BPS concentrations up to 26.6 μg·g−1; in China, adult daily intake is estimated at 0.78 ng·kg−1, underscoring the need for dust mitigation strategies.
• • BPS exposure is associated with metabolic diseases including obesity, NAFLD, diabetes, and cardiovascular disorders, with evidence from epidemiological and animal studies; for instance, BPS can disrupt glucuronic acid pathway, leading to accumulation of metabolic toxicants.
• • Mechanistic studies reveal that BPS induces oxidative stress and inflammation via NLRP3 inflammasome, TLR4, Nrf2, and MAPK pathways, as shown in RAW264.7 cells, providing potential therapeutic targets.