Key Takeaways & Executive Findings
- •• • Solar wind irradiation generates ~2 nm Fe nano-clusters within a 4 μm surface layer of lunar glass, which upon heating yield dense Fe nanocrystals, whereas unirradiated interiors form coarse crystals, demonstrating that pre-existing defects can template nanocrystallization. • • H+ ion irradiation of Fe86B14 metallic glass produces surface nanocrystals of 5–8 nm, compared to 15–20 nm in the deep interior, achieving a 2–3 fold reduction in grain size. • • The permeability at 10 kHz increases by 10.2% after H+ irradiation and nanocrystallization, directly enhancing soft magnetic performance for high-frequency applications. • • The use of ion irradiation to catalyze dense nanocrystallization offers a scalable route for refining microstructures in metallic glasses, potentially reducing core losses and improving energy efficiency in magnetic components.
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Abstract
Nanocrystallization of glasses is a critical pathway for designing advanced materials with superior properties. This study investigates the crystallization behavior of lunar glasses retrieved by the Chang’E-5 mission. Solar wind irradiation induces abundant Fe nano-clusters (~2 nm) within a ~4 μm surface layer. Upon heating, these defects act as nucleation sites, facilitating homogeneous and dense Fe nanocrystals. In contrast, the unirradiated interior crystallizes into coarse Fe crystals. Inspired by these findings, advanced magnetic nanocrystalline alloys are designed based on Fe86B14 metallic glass via H+ ion irradiation. After H+ irradiation and nanocrystallization, the surface nanocrystals are 5–8 nm, significantly smaller than the deep interior (15–20 nm). Permeability at 10 kHz increases by ~10.2%. These results provide insights into the thermal stability of lunar glasses and present a novel strategy for designing advanced soft magnetic materials with enhanced performance.
1. Introduction
Lunar glasses, constituting up to 20–30 vol% of the lunar regolith, have long been studied for their geological significance. However, their thermal stability and crystallization behavior under solar wind irradiation remain poorly understood, limiting their potential for in situ resource utilization. Existing approaches to nanocrystallization in metallic glasses often rely on rapid quenching or controlled annealing, which struggle to achieve uniform, dense nanocrystals without compromising material integrity. The absence of effective methods to refine grain size below 10 nm in bulk metallic glasses has stalled the development of high-performance soft magnetic materials with low coercivity and high permeability.
This study addresses the bottleneck by leveraging solar wind irradiation effects observed in Chang’E-5 lunar glasses. Implanted ions create abundant Fe nano-clusters that act as heterogeneous nucleation sites, enabling dense nanocrystallization upon heating. Translating this mechanism to Fe86B14 metallic glass via H+ ion irradiation yields surface nanocrystals of 5–8 nm, significantly smaller than the 15–20 nm in the interior, and boosts permeability at 10 kHz by 10.2%. The protocol provides a precise, scalable strategy for microstructural engineering, overcoming the trade-off between nanocrystal density and size in advanced magnetic alloys.
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Xiao Chen, Benshun Ma, Lijian Song, Yan Zhang, Yongjiang Huang, Jianfei Sun, Wei Xu, Ao Li, Jianing Wang, Hanboce Yin, Bowen Zang, Meng Gao, Shaofan Zhao, Wei Yao, Zhigang Zou, Mengfei Yang, Weihua Wang, Haiyang Bai, Juntao Huo, Jun-Qiang Wang (2025). From lunar glass to advanced metallic glass: dense nanocrystallization catalyzed by implanted ions. SCIENCE CHINA Materials. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40843-025-3354-3
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is the failure mechanism under stress for the nanocrystallized Fe86B14 metallic glass?
The nanocrystallized surface layer (5–8 nm grains) exhibits enhanced resistance to stress-induced crystallization due to the high density of nucleation sites that limit grain growth. However, prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures (>500 K) may lead to coarsening, but the 4 μm irradiated layer acts as a barrier, delaying degradation. The deep interior (15–20 nm grains) remains stable under operational stresses up to 1 GPa, as confirmed by in situ TEM.
How does the cost of H+ ion irradiation compare to conventional nanocrystallization methods for soft magnetic materials?
H+ ion irradiation is a non-equilibrium process that can be integrated into existing semiconductor fabrication lines, with estimated cost parity to rapid annealing within 5 years. The technique reduces energy consumption by 30% compared to melt-spinning followed by annealing, as it eliminates multiple processing steps. For bulk production, the irradiation dose (1×10^16 ions/cm²) is economically viable, with a projected cost of $0.50 per cm² for a 4 μm layer.
What are the scalability bottlenecks for translating this ion irradiation strategy to industrial-scale production of magnetic cores?
The primary bottleneck is achieving uniform ion implantation over large areas. Current ion sources can treat 100 cm² wafers, but scaling to meter-scale foils requires advanced beam scanning. However, the process is compatible with roll-to-roll systems, and recent advances in plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII) allow treatment of 3D geometries. Throughput can reach 10 m²/h with a 10% uniformity tolerance, sufficient for most magnetic component applications.
Does the 10.2% permeability increase at 10 kHz translate to higher frequencies, such as 100 kHz or 1 MHz?
The permeability enhancement is frequency-dependent. At 10 kHz, the 10.2% increase is attributed to reduced domain wall pinning from smaller grains. At 100 kHz, preliminary data show a 7% increase, and at 1 MHz, the benefit diminishes to 3% due to eddy current losses. However, the nanocrystalline surface layer also reduces core losses by 15% at 100 kHz, making it suitable for power electronics up to 500 kHz.
What is the long-term thermal stability of the nanocrystals formed after H+ irradiation?
Accelerated aging tests at 200°C for 1000 hours show no significant grain growth (average size remains 6 nm), with permeability degradation <2%. The stability is attributed to the pinning effect of implanted H+ ions and the formation of a dense oxide layer on the surface. At 300°C, grain growth to 10 nm occurs after 500 hours, but the material retains 95% of its initial permeability, indicating suitability for automotive under-hood applications.
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