Cost-effective organic solar cells consisting of homogeneously passivated metal oxides

• • Champion PCE of 20.22% achieved for all-MO CTM-based OSCs, representing the highest value to date, validating the effectiveness of homogeneous passivation in enhancing device performance. • • Large-area devices fabricated via ambient blade-coating yield 18.33% PCE (1.44 cm2) and modules reach 16.03% PCE (20.05 cm2), demonstrating scalability with estimated material costs only ~4% of organic CTM counterparts, offering a significant cost advantage for industrial production. • • Devices retain over 80% of initial PCE after 1300 h of maximum power point (MPP) tracking and over 1000 h of thermal annealing at 85°C, indicating superior operational and thermal stability critical for commercial viability. • • The hybrid passivation strategy mitigates surface hydroxyl defects on MOs, reducing charge recombination and photocatalytic degradation, thereby addressing the primary bottleneck limiting MO-based CTM stability and efficiency.