• • Global surveillance (2012–2024) identified Algeria and Iran as hotspots for tetracycline contamination in milk, with concentrations exceeding MRLs in some samples; Algeria, Bangladesh, and Kenya showed elevated β-lactam residues, necessitating targeted interventions.
• • Health risk assessment revealed that while all individual HQ values were <1, the cumulative HI for multiple antibiotics in Algerian raw milk exceeded 1, indicating potential synergistic risks that single-compound assessments miss.
• • The predominant tetracyclines (tetracycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline) and β-lactams (penicillin, amoxicillin) align with global veterinary usage patterns, emphasizing the need for residue monitoring in dairy supply chains.
• • Despite regulatory MRLs, a fraction of samples across countries exceeded these limits, underscoring gaps in enforcement and the necessity for robust analytical methods (LC-MS/HPLC) to ensure compliance and consumer safety.