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🏛️ Key Research Academy17 Indexed Works

Huazhong University of Science and Technology

Verified scientific contributions, CAS laboratory outputs, clinical trial papers, and engineering breakthroughs produced by researchers and faculty affiliated with Huazhong University of Science and Technology.

SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Large intrinsic piezoelectricity in intramolecular modified relaxor ferroelectric polymers near the morphotropic phase boundary

Authors: Ze Yuan, Yuquan Liu, Zekai Fei, Yutie Gong, Zhigao Huang, Yang Li, Chenyi Li, Yun Zhang, Huamin Zhou, Yang Liu

Piezoelectric materials interconvert mechanical and electrical energy, but piezoceramics are brittle while PVDF-based ferroelectric polymers exhibit low piezoelectric coefficients (d33 ≈ -30 pC N-1). Chemical modification via morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) engineering has raised d33 in P(VDF-TrFE) to -63.5 pC N-1, and to -69 pC N-1 with stretching, but intrinsic piezoelectricity in relaxor terpolymers remains limited. Here, relaxor ferroelectric P(VDF-TrFE-CFE) with varying C=C double bond (DB) content is synthesized via dehydrochlorination. Structural and electrical characterization reveals that increasing DB content stabilizes long-range ferroelectric order while suppressing short-range relaxor characteristics, forming a trans/helix phase boundary. At a critical DB content of 2.0 mol%, a markedly enhanced intrinsic d33 of -129.0 pC N-1 is achieved, outperforming previous MPB approaches. This finding addresses the fundamental bottleneck of low piezoelectric response in flexible ferroelectric polymers and provides a viable route for high-performance wearable electromechanical devices.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Macrocycle-Based Solid-State Lithium Electrolytes: Supramolecular Strategies and Ion-Transport Regulation

Authors: WANG Wenjie, GU Zhangjie, TIAN Jinya, LI Hongbing, CHAI Yongping, JIAO Zhaoyang, CHI Xiaodong

The rapid demand for high-energy-density lithium batteries necessitates advanced solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) to overcome the safety and performance limitations of conventional liquid counterparts. Macrocyclic compounds, with their well-defined cavities, programmable binding sites, and tunable self-assembly, have emerged as powerful molecular regulators for designing next-generation SSEs. This review examines recent advancements in macrocyclic compound-based SSEs by categorizing their functions into four fundamental supramolecular regulation paradigms: cation-centered regulation (e.g., crown ethers), anion-centered regulation (e.g., calixarenes and calixpyrroles), channel-dominated transport (e.g., cyclodextrins), and hybrid regulation (e.g., cucurbiturils). We elucidate how these macrocycles precisely control ion coordination, modulate migration dynamics, and reshape interfacial chemistry, leading to enhanced ionic conductivity, improved Li+ transference numbers, suppressed lithium dendrite growth, and superior interfacial stability. While each paradigm offers distinct advantages, the most promising SSEs often leverage synergistic combinations of these strategies. Finally, we highlight the remaining challenges, including synthetic complexity and multi-objective performance trade-offs, and propose future research directions for developing highly efficient and durable macrocycle-based solid-state lithium batteries.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Robust photothermal coating of core-shell nanoparticles for zero-energy long-lasting antifogging

Authors: Xi Mao, Kunting Wu, Shuai Deng, Wang Li, Shaohong Jin, Renhua Deng, Jintao Zhu

Antifogging coatings are critical for transparent optical components, yet existing solutions struggle to balance durability and energy efficiency. We present a scalable printing technology for fabricating uniform nanoparticle (NP) coatings with an Au@SiO2 core-shell architecture. The Au core provides efficient photothermal conversion, while the SiO2 shell ensures robust interfacial adhesion to diverse substrates and imparts hydrophilicity. Leveraging these properties, the coatings suppress moisture condensation upon light exposure. The coatings exhibit exceptional mechanical stability, retaining antifogging performance after soaking in water for 1 week or wiping with a glass cloth over 100 times. This work offers a sustainable, energy-efficient solution for long-term antifogging applications, with potential in optical devices, automotive glass, and medical instruments. Our approach provides a scalable platform for functional NP coatings and opens new avenues for next-generation antifogging materials.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

A Heterocatalyst-Modified Separator Enables Multi-Stage Sodium Compensation for Long-Life Sodium-Ion Batteries

Authors: Jingyu Xiang, Wei Zhong, Linfeng Peng, Shijie Cheng, Jia Xie

Irreversible sodium loss, primarily caused by solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation during initial cycling, significantly degrades the capacity of sodium-ion batteries by depleting active sodium. While pre-sodiation mitigates initial sodium loss, it fails to address continuous loss throughout the battery lifecycle. To overcome this limitation, we propose a sustained sodium compensation strategy utilizing activation-releasing systems. Key to this approach are high-capacity sodium compensators, Na2C2O4 and Na2C4O4, supported on a B and N co-doped Mo2C-W2C (MoW-C) heterostructure catalyst. This configuration enables efficient sodium release at charging voltages of 3.53 and 3.78 V, respectively. By integrating the sodium supplement agent onto the separator, and precisely controlling voltage and charge, multiple sodium replenishment is achieved over the entire battery lifecycle. This strategy reduces initial active sodium loss by 36.53%. Furthermore, a single activation during subsequent usage provides an additional 0.115 mAh cm−2 of active sodium. As a result, the cell exhibits exceptional cycling stability, with a capacity loss of only 0.059% per cycle over 350 cycles at 0.5 C.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Smart Fiber Photodetectors Based on Inorganic Semiconductors

Authors: Hongyun Peng, Fangfang Xia, Zhigang Xia, Huiqiao Li, Tianyou Zhai

Fiber photodetectors (FPDs) with high deformability, flexible designability, and seamless integrability with everyday textiles hold tremendous potential for next-generation wearable optoelectronics. Inorganic semiconductors (ISCs) are considered ideal building blocks to design and govern the functions of FPDs owing to their superior electrical and optical properties. Recent developments in wearable technology of ISCs, especially in fiber form factor, have driven the creation of various FPDs with smart capabilities, from light sensing, information interfacing, to sophisticated logic operating, revolutionizing human-machine interaction paradigms in many emerging fields. Herein, we present a comprehensive review of recent progress of ISC-based FPDs. Firstly, key design principles for ISC-based FPDs are explored, encompassing material selection, fabrication technologies, device architectures, and textile integration strategies. Then, how defect engineering, alignment engineering, and heterojunction engineering of ISCs can control the optoelectronic performance of FPDs is examined. Following this, potential wearable applications of ISC-based FPDs in optical communication, image sensing, and health monitoring are analyzed. Finally, the challenges and perspectives for the design of high-performance ISC-based FPDs are outlined.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

High-Performance Freshwater-Hydroelectricity Co-Generation by Porous Carbon through Waste Polyester-Derived MOF-Assisted Carbonization

Authors: Yan She, Guixin Hu, Xueying Wen, Huiyue Wang, Ming Yang, Lingling Feng, Zhikun Dai, Qianyu Wei, Ran Niu, Jiang Gong

The integration of interfacial photothermal conversion and hydrovoltaic effects into bifunctional evaporators offers a promising route to simultaneously address freshwater scarcity and energy demands. However, the development of low-cost bifunctional evaporators and elucidation of the underlying co-generation mechanism remain challenging. Here, we report a porous carbon derived from waste polyester via a metal-organic framework (MOF)-assisted carbonization strategy, which is subsequently fabricated into a bifunctional evaporator for freshwater and hydroelectricity co-generation. The porous carbon exhibits a high specific surface area of 904 m² g⁻¹, hierarchical micro- and mesopores, and abundant oxygen-containing groups. The resulting evaporator demonstrates broadband light absorption, localized thermal management, good hydrophilicity, and high flexibility. Under 1 sun illumination, it achieves an open-circuit voltage of 250 mV, a short-circuit current of 14 μA, and an evaporation rate of 2.34 kg m⁻² h⁻¹, ranking among the most efficient freshwater-hydroelectricity co-generators. The weakened hydrogen-bonding network reduces the water evaporation enthalpy to 1.7 kJ g⁻¹. Mechanistic studies, including molecular dynamics simulations, reveal that selective Na⁺ interaction induces differential ion migration rates, generating a streaming potential. Additionally, the photothermal effect enhances voltage output by promoting interfacial ion concentration gradients. Outdoor tests confirm stable voltage output of 250 mV and freshwater production of 2.34 kg m⁻². This work provides a scalable platform for fabricating advanced evaporators from waste plastics and unravels the co-generation mechanism, offering a sustainable strategy to mitigate freshwater and energy crises.

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Journal of Fuel Chemistry and Technology•2026

Hydrogen Production and Structure Evolution Mechanism during Thermochemical Conversion of Microalgae Pellet in Molten Hydroxide Salts

Authors: LI Jun, LEI Ling, CAO Wenxuan, ZHU Han, ZHONG Dian, ZENG Kuo, YANG Haiping, CHEN Hanping

This study investigates the thermochemical conversion behavior of microalgae pellets in a molten hydroxide salt (80% NaOH-20% Na2CO3) system and its influence on hydrogen production. By comparing temperature evolution, gas release characteristics, and structural evolution of pellets with and without molten salt, and integrating char alkalization experiments, the regulatory mechanism of molten salt on reaction pathways and hydrogen production was systematically analyzed. Results indicate that molten salt significantly enhances internal heat transfer efficiency, achieving a central heating rate of 177 °C/s, effectively alleviating thermal hysteresis. Concurrently, molten salt promotes pore development through penetration, erosion, and catalytic effects, resulting in a porosity increase of 53.2%–104.3% after 10 s of reaction. Conversion efficiency is markedly improved, with the dominant reaction pathway shifting to char alkalization after only 70 s. Furthermore, when heating rate is increased above 600 °C, hydrogen yield from char alkalization improves more significantly, primarily attributed to the synergistic promotion of molten salt catalysis and rapid heating on volatiles reforming. This study provides a theoretical foundation for understanding efficient hydrogen production from biomass in molten hydroxide salts.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Pyrrolic Polysquaraine: A Promising Polymer Semiconductor for Short-Wavelength Infrared Organic Photodetector and Imager

Authors: Jin He, Zhi Wang, Yaxin He, Qi Xiao, Ming Shao, Zhong'an Li

Short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) organic photodetectors (OPDs) have attracted considerable attention due to their potential to overcome the limitations of inorganic counterparts. However, developing organic semiconductors with strong SWIR detection remains a significant challenge. Herein, we design and synthesize a new conjugated pyrrolic polysquaraine (PSQ-COT) by integrating a pyrrolic squaraine unit with a strong electron-donating moiety, achieving an absorption onset extending to 1.2 μm. To evaluate its detection performance, we fabricated two types of PSQ-COT-based SWIR OPDs with PC61BM and BTP-eC9 as the electron acceptors, respectively. The resulting PSQ-COT:PC61BM OPD exhibited superior detection performance compared with the BTP-eC9 counterpart, achieving an impressive specific detectivity of 1.08 × 10^12 Jones at 1030 nm under zero bias. This enhanced performance is due to the lower degree of energetic disorder and reduced trap density in the PSQ-COT:PC61BM device. Furthermore, we successfully integrated the PSQ-COT:PC61BM OPD into a high-pixel-density image array (640 × 512 pixels), enabling clear matter identification under SWIR light irradiation. This work provides valuable insights into designing high-performance organic semiconductors for SWIR light detection and imaging applications.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Intrinsic Cyclic Boron Dipyrromethene Nanoparticles with Tumor-Activated Disassembly for Enhanced Phototherapeutic Stability and Efficacy

Authors: JIA Aoqing, YANG Zhen, XIE Zhigang, ZHENG Min

Cyclic molecular architectures offer unparalleled functional diversity and assembly advantages, holding significant promise for applications in nanomedicine. Here, we propose a cyclic molecular engineering strategy designed to address the hydrophobicity of organic dyes while simultaneously enhancing their phototherapeutic efficacy. Through esterification of the boron dipyrromethene (BDP) core with adipic acid (CB-c) or dithiodiacetic acid (CB-s), we developed self-assembling nanoparticles (NPs) with exceptional colloidal stability (>60 d) and microenvironment-responsive dissociation. CB-s NPs exhibited unique antiparallel dimeric packing in crystallographic studies, enabling robust H-aggregation. The redox-sensitive disulfide bonds in CB-s NPs conferred tumor-selective disassembly (90% dissociation within 30 h), facilitating spatiotemporally controlled therapeutic activation. In vivo studies demonstrated superior synergistic photodynamic/photothermal therapy (PDT/PTT) efficacy, achieving 92% tumor suppression. This work establishes cyclic architecture-driven supramolecular organization as a paradigm-shifting approach for developing multifunctional nanomaterials.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Work-function-engineered high-entropy alloy/carbon nanofibers direct Na+ transport for stable anode-free sodium batteries

Authors: Saisai Qiu, Haolin Zhu, Qiang Wu, Jiayue Peng, Canfu Zhang, Shijie Cheng, Jia Xie

Anode-free sodium metal batteries (AF-SMBs) are promising for high-energy, low-cost energy storage, but suffer from interfacial instability due to sluggish Na+ kinetics and non-uniform deposition. Here, we report a scalable electrospinning-pyrolysis route to anchor FeCoNiCuMn high-entropy alloy (HEA) nanoparticles on N-doped carbon nanofibers (HEANCF). Density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal high binding energy toward Na atoms, facilitating desolvation and adsorption. A built-in electric field (BIEF) arises from work function differences, driving electron redistribution and guiding uniform Na+ diffusion. The heterostructure also shows strong affinity for PF6− anions, promoting NaF-rich SEI formation that suppresses electron tunneling and parasitic reactions. Full cells with Na3V2(PO4)3 cathodes achieve 80% capacity retention after 600 cycles at 1 C. Ah-level pouch cells deliver ~200 Wh kg−1 and retain 87% capacity after 150 cycles at 0.5 C. This work establishes a coherent interfacial-kinetics framework for practical AF-SMBs.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Unique Role of High-Entropy Metallic Glasses as Multifunctional Electrocatalytic Materials

Authors: LI Li, BU Qing-Zhou, GAO Liang, JIANG Jun-Ying, PENG Xu, YU Hai-Bin

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) and metallic glasses (MGs) are promising electrocatalysts but suffer from inherent limitations: HEAs lack corrosion resistance and uniform surfaces due to their crystalline nature, while MGs have limited compositional flexibility, restricting active-site diversity and electronic-structure tuning. High-entropy metallic glasses (HEMGs) integrate the structural disorder of MGs with the multi-principal-element chemistry of HEAs, offering a unique combination of robust corrosion resistance, homogeneous surfaces, and abundant tunable active sites. Using Pd20Pt20Cu20Ni20P20 as a model HEMG, we investigate its electrocatalytic performance for alcohol oxidation and hydrogen evolution. The HEMG exhibits superior activity and stability compared to conventional HEAs and MGs, attributed to its disordered structure and high configurational entropy, which promote optimized adsorption energies and accelerated charge transfer. This work bridges the performance gap between HEAs and MGs, demonstrating HEMGs as multifunctional electrocatalytic materials with potential for industrial applications.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Porphyrin Covalent Organic Frameworks: A Duet in Photocatalysis

Authors: Keke Zhang, Xianjun Lang

Porphyrins, nature's molecular workhorses, operate at the core of photosynthesis and cytochrome P450 catalysis, offering a blueprint for sustainable energy and environmental systems. Their rigid, conjugated macrocycles provide broad solar-spectrum absorption, long-lived excited states, and efficient charge transfer, making them ideal building blocks (knots) for covalent organic frameworks (COFs). Since 2011, porphyrin-based COFs have been synthesized via boronate ester and imine linkages, with imine-linked variants proving stable for photocatalysis. A critical design challenge is the strategic selection of linker molecules that bridge porphyrin knots and allow functionalization. Benzothiadiazole (BT) and its dimethoxy derivative (BT(OMe)2) serve as electron acceptors, forming donor-acceptor COFs with porphyrin as the donor. Jiang et al. recently reported H2P-BT-COF and H2P-BT(OMe)2-COF, which exhibit strong electronic coupling, short interlayer distances, and extensive hydrogen-bond networks. In H2P-BT(OMe)2-COF, methoxy groups elevate frontier orbital energies, narrow the bandgap, and redistribute frontier orbital density, while hydrogen bonding strengthens interlayer interactions and facilitates ambipolar charge transfer through segregated π-columns. This dual mechanism suppresses charge recombination and enhances overall charge transfer. Notably, these COFs synergistically utilize both electron transfer (ET) and energy transfer (EnT) pathways: H2P and BT units act as independent oxidation/reduction centers for ET, while π-arrays of H2P serve as active sites for EnT. Methoxy groups increase thermodynamic driving force for superoxide radical formation and establish hydrogen-bond networks that promote singlet oxygen generation, cooperatively supporting both pathways. The polar methoxy groups also create one-dimensional channels for efficient reactant delivery. Consequently, H2P-BT(OMe)2-COF demonstrates outstanding performance in selective organic transformations using O2 as oxidant, including oxidative coupling of benzylamine and oxidative condensation of o-phenylenediamine.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Construction of Multicolor Fluorescent Polymer Materials Based on a Single Fluorophore

Authors: LI Qingyun, LU Anji, LYU Yongli, JI Xiaofan

Multicolor fluorescent polymer materials (MFPMs) are of significant value in biomaterials and display technologies due to their rich color palette. Traditional construction methods rely on incorporating multiple fluorescent molecules of different colors, which introduces complexities in structural design, synthesis, purification, and practical operability. To overcome these challenges, a strategy employing a single fluorophore that exhibits multiple fluorescent colors has been developed and integrated into MFPMs. This approach has advanced fields such as information anti-counterfeiting and optoelectronic materials. This review summarizes recent developments in MFPMs based on a single fluorescent molecule, elucidates preparation methods and color conversion mechanisms, and analyzes application prospects. Key mechanisms include aggregation-induced emission (AIE), excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT), and twisted intramolecular charge transfer (TICT), which enable color tuning through environmental stimuli or assembly. The review highlights the potential of this strategy to simplify fabrication processes while achieving tunable emission colors. It provides guidance for designing novel multicolor fluorescent materials and fosters progress in fluorescent materials, polymer science, and materials science.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Tuning interfacial water supply and electron transfer enables industrial-scale alkaline hydrogen evolution

Authors: Zhaoyang Shi, Xiaotong Wan, Penghui Huang, Yuxiang Guo, Zhe Wang, Yang Yang, Sirui Huang, Danji Huang, Youwen Liu, Tianyou Zhai

Alkaline water electrolysis is a pivotal technology for large-scale green hydrogen production, yet its efficiency is constrained by sluggish hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) kinetics at industrial current densities. Here, we propose a synergistic dual-doping strategy to lower kinetic barriers for both Volmer and Heyrovsky steps. A robust amorphous NiCoV nanosheet electrode was synthesized via scalable one-step electrodeposition. In situ spectroscopic and kinetic characterizations reveal that hydrophilic V species optimize interfacial water by disrupting the hydrogen bond network, ensuring rapid supply of free water at the inner Helmholtz plane. Co dopants modulate electronic structure to facilitate electron transfer and optimize intermediate adsorption energetics. The NiCoV electrode requires an ultralow overpotential of 253 mV at -400 mA cm−2, surpassing most Pt-based catalysts, and maintains stability for over 200 h. Industrial validation in a scaled-up electrolyzer demonstrates a cell voltage of 1.89 V at 400 mA cm−2, achieving energy savings of 0.12 kWh m−3 H2 compared to commercial benchmarks. This translates to annual electricity savings of 1.33 × 10^6 kWh for a medium-scale demonstration project, highlighting immense potential for sustainable industrial applications.

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Journal of Fuel Chemistry and Technology•2026

Control Strategy for Mercury Emissions from Coal-Fired Flue Gas in China

Authors: XIAO Rihong, LUO Changxin, WU Yuzi, TANG Chengrui, XIONG Zhuo, ZHANG Junying, ZHAO Yongchun

Mercury emissions from coal combustion are highly toxic, volatile, and bioaccumulative, posing long-term threats to ecosystems and human health. This review systematically examines the current status and control policies of mercury emissions from coal combustion in China, analyzing distribution characteristics and transformation mechanisms during combustion, with emphasis on collaborative removal in pollution control devices after ultra-low emission retrofitting. A progressive strategy of 'synergistic enhancement–deep purification–resource recycling' is proposed, comprising three tiers: optimizing operational parameters of existing control systems to enhance synergistic mercury removal; developing efficient adsorption and catalytic oxidation technologies for industrial application; and advancing integrated mercury removal and recovery technologies, such as magnetosphere-based sorbents and recovery processes, focusing on high-value utilization. The paper also outlines future research directions aligned with international compliance and domestic environmental tax policies, providing theoretical and technical support for China's commitments to near-zero emissions of coal combustion pollutants.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Integrated Molecular Engineering Strategy in All-Organic Dielectrics for Ultrahigh-Temperature Capacitive Energy Storage

Authors: WANG Yuanqi, WU Hangyao, CHEN Lan, LIN Sinan, LI Chenyi, ZHANG Yun, LI Yang, ZHOU Huamin, LIU Yang

Polymer composite dielectrics are key materials for high-temperature film capacitors, yet their energy storage capability is severely constrained at elevated temperatures. Molecular fillers that simultaneously integrate deep-level trapping (high electron affinity, Ea), strong insulation (large bandgap, Eg), and high thermal stability are rarely available, posing a major challenge for improving high-temperature energy storage performance. To address this challenge, we screen and identify hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT-CN) as a promising candidate that fulfills the above critical requirements from numerous commercial organic molecules. When incorporated into a high glass transition temperature (Tg) polymer fluorene polyester (FPE), the resulting all-organic composite exhibits simultaneously suppressed high-temperature conduction loss and preserved mechanical robustness. Consequently, the optimized composite achieves record-high discharged energy densities of 7.31 J cm−3 at 150 °C and 6.14 J cm−3 at 200 °C (η≥90%) with a low cost and scalable process. This work demonstrates that the filler design based on synergistic key properties provides a potent pathway to break the longstanding high-temperature performance bottleneck in polymer dielectrics.

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SCIENCE CHINA Materials•2026

Engineering Hydrogen-Bond Networks in Self-Assembled Molecules Boosts All-Perovskite Tandem Solar Cell Efficiency

Authors: Luo Huaiqing, Zhou Qisen, Chen Wei

All-perovskite tandem solar cells (TSCs) are poised to surpass the Shockley–Queisser limit of single-junction perovskite solar cells (PSCs) by integrating wide- and narrow-bandgap subcells to broaden spectral utilization. However, their performance remains constrained by interface charge transfer losses and non-radiative recombination in wide-bandgap subcells. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) serve as effective hole-selective contacts, yet conventional designs suffer from uncontrolled intermolecular interactions due to amphiphilic characteristics, leading to detrimental self-aggregation, suboptimal molecular packing, and weakened interfacial adhesion. In a recent breakthrough published in Nature Energy, Wang et al. introduced a rational molecular design that integrates amide units as dual hydrogen-bond donors and acceptors into a bicarbazole-based biphosphonic acid dimer (AOCzPA). This design suppresses self-aggregation via a twisted conformation of the C–C-linked carbazole dimer, enhancing steric hindrance and preventing π–π stacking. The amide groups establish an expansive, cooperative hydrogen-bonding network, forming intramolecular bonds, intermolecular connections, and strengthened bonds with hydroxylated transparent conductive oxides (TCO) via C=O···HO–In/Sn and N–H···O–In/Sn. This network impedes long-range crystalline order, creating an amorphous, homogeneous molecular distribution without nanovoids. Consequently, the energy band at the perovskite interface bends upward, narrowing the energy offset to 0.42 eV and aligning HOMO levels for barrier-free hole extraction. The strategy yields exceptional performance: 1.77 eV single-junction wide-bandgap PSCs achieve a PCE of 21.56%, V_OC of 1.35 V, and FF of 85.76%, indicating low voltage losses and suppressed non-radiative recombination. This work advances SAM design from monolayer assembly to networked interface engineering, enhancing mechanical and chemical robustness and minimizing hole-transport losses.

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